Flawless Tips on Selecting Your PhD Thesis Topic

How to Choose the Right PhD Thesis Topics? our site Dissertation TopicsSelecting the right PhD Thesis topic is challenging, but if you get this step right, you are on the right path to completing your studies and getting your degree. Deciding on your PhD topic has to be a result of thorough research and multiple consultations with your student support team. You need to know exactly what your university’s requirements are and what your professors are expecting of you. If you know the research field or area of your professor, you might choose a topic that is related to it, so you get plenty of support from your supervisor when trying to locate recent publications or completing your literature review.What to Ask Yourself Before You Choose Your PhD Thesis TopicTo be successful at shortlisting the most appropriate doctoral thesis topics or PhD thesis topic, you need to ask yourself the following questions: Is the PhD thesis topic relevant to recent trends in research, and related to your studies You need to check research projects submitted in your department in the past few years. If you need help finding these in the archives, ask your supervisor’s help. Is there enough preliminary literature to support your doctoral thesis or PhD thesis topic You need to perform a quick literature research in order to find out if your topic is current, whether or not you can add to the existing literature, and build on existing research. What are the current hot trends in your subject area You will need to select a PhD thesis topic that will provide value for researchers and those who work in the field. Check for current issues, trends, using a journal search of recent publications. If you find a topic that attracts an intense debate, you might just have found a winning doctoral thesis topic. Which theories you would like to apply? You, as a PhD student, are likely to have a favourite theory or approach. Look for topics that allow you to utilise your advanced knowledge in the theory. Which research approach an philosophy would you like to use? You need to make sure that your doctoral thesis is feasible, and can be completed in the given time. As an example, if you are planning to create a longitudinal study, you might need years to complete your dissertation, as all the results need to be analysed. Will you get access to the data and research tools? Once you shortlist your PhD thesis topics, you need to make sure that you will have access to the software needed to analyse the results and you can gain access to the information. For example, if you are an MBA student, and would like to research a company, you need to gain consent from the management to carry out the research. How will the research enhance your future career? You need to pick your doctoral dissertation topic according to your interest and future career. Your research will show your potential employers your interest in the given topic and you will be more likely to get the job. A PhD dissertation should also summarize your knowledge of the topic you studied during your course. However, showcasing academic skills and theoretical knowledge is only half of the job. You need to add loads of creativity, and develop a unique approach that will create value for researchers and professionals working in the field. Remember that your PhD dissertation should highlight your research skills and show the university that you can work on your own initiative, develop ideas, and add value to the literature.Tips on Selecting Your PhD Thesis TopicBefore you start, familiarize yourself with current literature and trends, and make sure that you know which topics have research gaps you can build your PhD thesis on. Engage in discussions on your selected topics in your faculty, to gain even more insight. Talk to your librarian or student support staff about your ideas. They will be able to crystallize your thoughts and clarify your research approach and direction Make sure that yo ur topic is manageable. Start with a broader research thesis, and narrow it down to a more specific one. This will make your topic easier to manage. Ensure that your topic will remain relevant and interesting for a long time. You do not want to write about a technology that might be outdated in a few years or an issue that is being resolved by government legislation. The research has to fill a gap in the existing literature. It is important that you check that your research is unique in the field, and no similar studies are in progress or have been published. It is a good idea to start your own dissertation topics file and take it with you to seminars and supervisor meetings. Add to it, eliminate items from the list, and you will be on the riht path to developing your perfect PhD thesis topics. Create a timeline estimate for each topic. This way, you can decide which doctoral dissertation topics are feasible, and which will be challenging to complete in a given time. Look for sugges tions from your university or ask your supervisor. Remember that your university receives and judges plenty of dissertations every year, and they have plenty of experience. Try to contact other researchers and experts in the field when considering a subject area. They will be happy to support your research and provide you with practical and academic advice. Deciding on your doctoral dissertation topic is one of the most important decisions you will face during your studies. Do not feel overwhelmed by the number of options and the requirements. If you are in doubt, you can always seek further guidance from your university or individual professor. If you still find it difficult to decide, you can look through our site’s Free Dissertation Topics section that has a list of subjects for various disciplines, from project management to health and social care. Alternatively, you can contact our site with your question and get professional advice from our professional academic writing experts. Also, don’t forget to checkout our site article on how to structure a Dissertation Chapters & Sub ChaptersDo you need help writing your Dissertation? Order Dissertation Today OR Call Now 855-997-2158Summary Reviewer John Review Date 2017-08-18 Reviewed Item Tips on Selecting your PhD Thesis Topic Author Rating 5

Are Our Lives Governed by Fate or Free Will Essay

Our lives are governed by free will. In the books Chinese Cinderella and Twisted the main characters use their free will to make choices that have consequences on their lives. Chinese Cinderella, by Adeline Yen Mah Chinese Cinderella is a story of a Chinese girl growing up Shanghai and Hong Kong in the 1940’s. Adeline was made to feel that her birth was the reason her mother died. Her siblings blamed her and her father and stepmother had no interest in her. She spent most her childhood at boarding schools. Although Adeline was sent to boarding school she still used her own free will to chose to study hard and excel in school. Adeline chose to continue to do well in school with the hope of gaining her parent’s attention. Despite all of the bad things that happened to Adeline she continued to strive to be the best in school. She chose to spend her time reading and doing homework. She received many awards. She used her free will to enter an international playwriting contest and she won. The result was that her name was published in the newspaper and this got her father’s attention. Adeline used this as an opportunity to ask to go to college. Her father agreed. Although her father selected her career as a doctor she was so happy to have the opportunity. Twisted, by Laurie Halse Anderson Tyler used his free will to spray paint on the school property. There were consequences for his actions. He had to do community service to pay for the damage, he got a probation officer and got his license taken away. Tyler spent alot of time being the victim. His father blamed him for most of the bad things that happened. He let things happen to him until one day he realized he could take control of his life. Tyler used his free will when he dropped out of the AP classes, started attending all of his classes, returned the stolen keys to the custodian and apologized for stealing them, stood up to Chip, spoke with his probation officer about the consequences of attending the party when he was on probation and stood up to father when he blamed Tyler for getting fired. The result of Tyler’s action to take control of these aspects of his life is it provides him with self-esteem. This new confidence gets rid of the bad thoughts he had (like killing himself). Tyler chose to spend his time playing a video game Tophet. The point of the game was to make his demon (Gormley) powerful enough to make it thru 66 levels of torment. In the end he succeeds and is given a choice to become the new lord of darkness or be reincarnated. He realizes the importance of choosing wisely.

Future of Food Essay

In the passed couple of decades, the foods we deem to be natural or of the Earth are instead Genetically Engineered. The term Genetically Engineered does not mean that the entire vegetable or food is fake but rather means that there is at least one genetically modified ingredient in the food that is sold all over stores, which raises a great health concern for many people. In the feature production of the documentary known as The Future of Food looks at how modern day technology has changed the food we consume and the effects it can have on our health. In watching this film about all the advancements that science has come to in the world with the food being eaten everyday, both the positive and negative effects of all those technological changes, its only right to think of the countries that barely have enough food in general or the people who are losing their livelihoods because of the advancements created by science in first world countries. A first world country like the United States has not only a great amount but also lots of variety of nutrition; however, even this is still not enough to â€Å"satisfy† such a wealthy nation because steps are still being taken to continue to â€Å"improve† nature. Projects were done that helped produce corn in all kinds of different colors and creating bigger than normal sized strawberries. A question seems to arise, is all this technological advancement necessary? Are we as a society taking unnecessary measures to â€Å"fix† something that is natural and worked since the beginning of time? In the medical world, many health problems have been examined where food and nutrition were identified as partial contributors to the problem. This film helped in explaining how enzymes are used to knick corn DNA and how foreign DNA was then presented into the corn cell walls. Consuming the genetically modified corn caused allergic reactions and stirred a health concern about labeling genetically modified foods. In my particular opinion it should be the people’s right to know whether the food they’re ingesting has been altered genetically or tempered with from its natural state. Nevertheless, this does not belittle the question as to why it is necessity to alter the food in the first place. In order to formulate a ground based opinion I need to weigh the positives and negatives. Natural food always has the benefit of being â€Å"natural,† however, genetically engineered foods sometimes has the advantages of looking more appealing, tasting better and/or having a longer lasting flavor. I have experienced this first hand I have grown a distaste to certain organic foods simply because they just didn’t taste nearly as good as those that are genetically engineered even though the organic foods were supposed to be fresher and of course natural. This certain taste for food could just be that I got too used to the taste of all the preservatives that go into foods. It’s interesting how I got used to chemically preserved foods and genetically engineered tastes that overtime became the good tasting ones while the healthier ones were rejected by my taste buds. Another benefit is that genetically engineered foods end up being cheaper because they have a greater resistance to environmental conditions that would normally spoil the unaltered form and are also made in quantities not given the same attention organic foods are given to be fresh and ripe. Being that they are made in greater quantity, they are available for more people for cheaper prices, becoming the food of choice. The question would be, are the quantities made and the decrease in prices good enough to outweigh the negative effects of genetically engineered food? Another point and question would be why do many countries still remain unfed and continue searching for methods to feed their fast growing populations if these genetically engineered foods are produced in such a surplus manner? Keeping the advantages of genetically engineered foods in mind, there are definitely several noteworthy disadvantages too. An advantage was the surplus of food, however, how is it a benefit if such foods are harming the body? Some would agree that it is better to feed and raise a healthy smaller sized population with natural, unaltered forms of food than to infect a large population and have them suffer from the repercussion caused by the food they had consumed. Also, most people that are not keeping up with this field of work do not know that there are these bodies that have consumed the modified foods for such prolonged time periods and have overtime probably developed immunity to the side effects the modifications can have. In these genetically engineered foods the DNA is altered, and just as changes in human DNA lead to disorders, consumption of foods with altered DNA may have the same fatal effects. Certain genetic modifications can even go as far as cause cancers and brain and organ damage. A huge disadvantage that most people do not notice, especially those who live in urban areas, is that due to the production of the genetically altered foods a lot of farmers have been put out of jobs. These farmers are not needed as much anymore because more crops can be made for cheaper and therefore they no longer make as much money on each crop they plant and sow as they once did, as was shown in Central American countries. Now days, while technology could be helping the economy by decreasing the price of foods for people, it is also harming people who depended on the unaltered food to bring them income. The U. S. economy and industry is choosing quantity over quality, which is not beneficial to our health but instead just our wallets. I believe that its not fair for people not to know what is in their foods and usually people don’t seek food that can hurt them, therefore, it was crucial that the â€Å"Genetically Engineered Right to Know† act get passed. It would allow people to know what they are consuming from the labels on the foods and therefore prevented conditions that could’ve risen from individuals allergic to a modified substance. The Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration is supposed to be on top of the foods produced and their effects. Nevertheless, it seems that genetically modified foods don’t cause enough of a significant threat in order for them to take action and stop the advancement, rather than promote it and seek ways to improve it. What would bring this matter to a flashing red alert? Though I admitted that genetically altered food does taste better, I still do not agree with the fact that I am consuming and enjoying the taste of unhealthy food. People often look for the most ripe fruits and healthy looking vegetables when they go shopping, but for a lot of produce these bigger fruits and vegetables end up being the modified ones. Though I personally have only been able to see the advantages of these foods, I realize that the disadvantages outweigh the benefits of having genetically modified foods. From a realistic point of view, being a student on a low budget it would be unpractical for me to purchase anything but the cheap genetically altered food. Looking even at the bigger picture, many individuals and families have the same outlook I do. Therefore, many people may be against the genetic modification of food, yet not much course of action will be taken. People are comfortable with their life styles, making the cases and effects of modified foods not seem like such a big deal. This shows that the wrong approach is probably being taken to bring this to significant awareness. To promote foods that are not going to be altered, there needs to be ways to produce the same great quantities and keep prices affordable under the economic conditions of the country and the budget of the average American Family. It was crucial to pass an act that will help identify the genetically engineered goods but still it is not sufficient enough to solve the issue at hand. This matter is truly a very controversial issue, containing both pros and cons; therefore, we as a government and a knowledgeable society we need to take a stand and incorporate more ideas in to solving this domestic problem.

Multiple Sclerosis and its Development Case Study

Multiple Sclerosis and its Development - Case Study Example This has been continuous and thus has been associated with the cause of the hearing loss. His condition caused a lot of misery in his life since he mysteriously lost over 20 pounds of weight and often become fatigued. This prompted Philip to seek medical attention where a few medical and neurological checkups led to MRI scan of the brain. The results indicated a patchy demyelination controlling every part of his body, thus a confirmation of multiple sclerosis. The results proved quite challenging to him with concern for his family members, his real estate business, and fear of loss of more physical attributes (Richard, 1). Despite the condition, Philip never gave up but intensified search for more knowledge about the disease. In his endeavor of the search, he met Dr. Swank, a neurologist who introduced the low dairy diet as well as low fat for the patients suffering from the disease. This program seemed effective for Philip, and thus reducing the severity of his condition. Despite experiencing some improvements, Philip never gave up and this offered him the opportunity to meet Dr. Richard, an orthomolecular practitioner. Due to his desire to get better, he accepted a neurological diagnosis, which authenticated the weakness in the left foot, failure of concordant rotational motion of the hands, hand tremor. Moreover, he displayed junky movements of the left limbs in case of stimulation by the neurological hammer (Richard, 1). Moreover, he experienced left-sided hyperactive reflexes, had nystagmus among other symptoms of MS. However, the laboratory report was more promising and indicated an iron overload due to the high presence of ferritin, which stores a lot of protein. Consequently, the thyroid panel indicated a low activity of 1.1 while the nerve cells were sensitive to mercury due to the presence of tubulin protein. Nevertheless, the laboratory test revealed deficiencies of vitamins pyridoxine and thiamin,  which facilitate nerve function (Richard, 1).  

Should illegal immigrants unlimited access to care and who should be Essay

Should illegal immigrants unlimited access to care and who should be responsible such care - Essay Example Worth noting is the fact that many Americans have access to health care services because of the existing insurance plans. The United States healthcare sector has had to deal with increasing costs of providing health care (Yoshikawa, 2011). Therefore, taxpayers have the conviction that illegal immigrants should not be allowed free access to healthcare in the United States. On the other hand, other people argue that illegal immigrants make a significant contribution to the American economy a factor that entitled them to enjoying some of the benefits such as healthcare services. This paper will highlight the views of Americans regarding this issue. With the increasing numbers of the undocumented number of illegal immigrants into the United States, there has been an increasing pressure on the provision of health care services to such individuals. Many health care institutions have faced the compulsion of providing illegal immigrants with emergency health care services. Worth noting is the fact that emergency health care services seek to save lives and their provision should not depend on whether an individual is legally or illegally in the United States. The Federal Government has set aside a special Medicaid fund whose purpose is to subsidize emergency health care services for illegal immigrants (Newman, 2007). However, the fund can only cater for emergency services and does not provide preventive health care. Some Americans argue that illegal immigrants are getting more than they deserve. However, Americans should recognize that the illegal immigrants contribute to both the micro and macro economics of the United States. With such contributions, they deserve to have access to basic services such as health care and housing. Some schools of thought argue that denying illegal immigrants access to health care services is both impractical and unethical. All individuals living in the

Driving. Information Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Driving. Information Technology - Essay Example A mention of programming to a non programmer sends shivers down the spine. However, few drivers do not realize how easy programming can be if only they understood similarities that exist between the two activities. Most drivers would agree that turning a steering wheel, engaging acceleration pedal and so on requires the use of muscles but certainly not much. On the other hand, programming or instructing a computer requires the use of intelligence in selecting proper instructions, anticipating response from the machine etc (Kent, 2006, 76). Just like driving, intelligence needed in programming is certainly not much especially if a person can relate programming to driving. It would not be possible to learn how to drive without involving yourself in the act. A person should understand that a computer only does what it is instructed to do just like a car follows the direction pointed by the driver. The computer system is able to utilize the CPU to perform a set of four basic operations c alled machine cycle on every instruction. First the control unit fetches the instruction from memory. Second, it decodes the instruction into commands that the computer will understand and then execute the command. Finally, the control unit writes the final result into the memory (Keith, 2006, 7). This process can be illustrated by a scenario where a person has to drive to a location he or she has not previously visited but needs to get there out of necessity. The four operations of the machine cycle are replicated in most activities that we do everyday. Driving to a place where a person has never been before is one of these activities and it requires plenty of careful planning. Any aspiring programmer must be able to conceptualize the four basic operations of the machine cycle and this can be done best by comparing the whole idea to a person going to visit a new friend in a location one has not been to before. Through twists and turns of fate, you happen to meet a nice person with whom you would be very glad to sit down and share a cup of coffee as you engage each other in some meaningful discourse. You have a problem that is bothering you and suddenly you happen to bump on someone with the solution. Forget about the nature of the problem and focus on how you get to be acquainted with the person and what follows afterwards. You happen to overhear someone discussing an issue with others that is related to a personal problem that you are going through. You later decide to talk to the person in private and the person is only more than willing to help. Unfortunately, since the person is so busy and is in a hurry, he decides to tell you where you can meet one evening and he forgets to give you phone number and all you can do is to find about his place of residence on your own. The only thing that you got is little clue of where he lives but you have never been to the place before. To drive to the place would require you plan your journey pretty carefully to avoid missing the place. To this end, the plans that you make would be pretty much be similar to the four operations of the machine cycle. The driver must bear in mind that the person told him he is only found at the place of his residence at a certain time in the evening and therefore should avoid as much as possible any delay related issues. The driver who in this case must not disclose any details of his activity due to its

Personal Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personal Development Plan - Essay Example This article gives an answer why getting into a Masters Degree in the University College of London program entails a different set of skills and abilities. Author gives an example of her skills and abilities demanded for this program. The University College of London (UCL) is known to be one of the world’s best universities. This is the ultimate reason why I have decided to apply for a master’s degree program with UCL. Its academic programs are known to be one of the best in UK. UCL, being a public research university, offers affordable education without sacrificing quality. This is another reason for choosing UCL. I can comfortably attend to my studies without worrying about the costs. Furthermore, this university is also proximal to my area of residence. In the Chinese history, Liu Bang was the founder and first emperor of the Han Dynasty, and Xiang Yu was a political figure during the same period with Liu. There was a famous battle between them, which is known as Chu-Han Contention. Xiang got 400,000 very strong soldiers. However, he failed in the war by fighting with only Gao's 100,000 soldiers. The reason of Gao's success was because he put the right people in the right place from this ancient example, we can know how important the enterprise management would be. In 2011 and 2012, I took the internship in CITIC Securities Ltd and PWC respectively. In these two periods, I further my understanding about the significance of enterprise management since I was connected closely with the staff within management from the first day I came in to the last day I left. In the very beginning, the representative of enterprise management provided all the interns with primary training for a half day in order to familiarize all the routines during our work. In the preceding time, I needed to frequently contact with them, not only handing in my time sheet but also reporting them any particular personal issues such as a sick leave. From ancient example and my personal experience, I see that enterprise management has played and will continue to play an essential role in a company or even a nation. Without it, the enterprise would never survive especially in present society with such an intensive competition. Essentially, Enterprise Management develops in a person the skill to look into business management from a holistic and integrated perspective. That is why I have been intrigued by enterprise management. To me, it is a higher level of understanding business

Home Depots Nightmarish EXIT from China Assignment

Home Depots Nightmarish EXIT from China - Assignment Example Thirdly, Home Depot wanted to get rid of the distribution network by eliminating middlemen and leverage worldwide supplier network which was hard. Lastly, Home Depot had been suffering from declining profits and only the change of the business model for example e-commerce (Saporta). The Chinese consumers haggle too much when doing their shopping which is unfavorable to the retailer. Furthermore, they do not buy some of the products for instance garage tools because they hire someone to do it for them (Saporta). In addition, Chinese do not shop alone without assistance which required Home Depot to hire and train tradesmen to meet their desired standards. A safe exit strategy from a foreign market would be liquidation because there is no worry about change of control and no negotiations are involved (Cross). From the article, I derived that closing some of the retail slowly is a safe exit strategy. Selling the retail stores to a friendly buyer would also serve as a safe exit strategy because the buyer is known. Lastly, offering an Initial Public Offer (IPO) for it would increase the worth of the company

Service Learning Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Service Learning Report - Essay Example The Saudi Student Organization has been helping other Saudi Arabian students meet each other and help keep the culture alive on campus for the past ten years. We enjoy spending time together as students that represent the Saudi country and culture while spending our time getting an education at Murray in Kentucky and we also enjoy serving others. The sole purpose of our organization is to keep the culture alive on campus. While we are students learning in America, we must be true to our own cultures and upbringings. Not just in culture but in our faith. We mostly offer programs to help Saudi students connect with other Saudi students. The Saudi Student Organization also hosts National Day for Saudi Arabia. The organization that I am involved in invites all students and faculty to take part and learn more about our culture and religion. I have devoted more than 20 hours of my time into helping to guide new students and help them to fit in here at Murray because I remember how important it was to me when I came to campus to keep my culture close to my heart and while I was living in America, I did not want to forget who I was and where I came from. I feel like I owe to other students how others helped me. In regards to the Organization’s Forces for Good Diagnostic Tool, this was completed with high remarks. For Practice 1: Advocate and Serve, there were two questions. The first was, â€Å"My organization advocates for policy reform, in addition to providing direct services,† and Strongly Agree was chosen. For the second question, â€Å"My organization effectively combines service and advocacy, drawing on direct service programs to inform advocacy agendas and vice versa,† it was ranked as an Agree. For the second section, the topic was to Make Markets Work. The two questions were: â€Å"My organization changes the way local, national, or global businesses fundamentally

Central Bank Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Central Bank - Term Paper Example The highly potential and naturally gifted part of the world does not have any central bank. Here in this essay a suitable structure for the proposed central bank will be provided in detailed fashion. The study will also analyze the point of similarities and dissimilarities between the proposed central bank of GCC and European central bank. The essay will also incorporate various arguments for supporting and opposing the proposed central bank. It means the essay will follow a critical analysis. The study will describe the various functions and objectives of the proposed central bank in GCC region. The essay will encourage significant detailed analysis in every section of the essay. The essay will follow a step by step approach which will be highly suitable with the topic of the study. At the end of the essay a suitable conclusion will be drawn. The first step after the decision to form a central bank is taken is to decide on the organizational structure of the central bank. To decide on the proposed structure of the new central bank the organization structure of the central bank of the member nations of the GCC can be taken as an example. If we look at the structure of the central bank of other banks belonging to some member nations of GCC, we find that the central banks of different countries follow central organization structure. All the organizations are headed by board of directors. Under the board of directors come the governor and deputy governor. The deputy governor is helped in his duties by a team of directors who look after different functions and departments of the bank. The figure below shows the structure of the central bank of Qatar as a particular example. While designing the structure of the central bank for the GCC the structure of ECB can serve as a good model. ECB as an organization is made up of three major decision making bodies 1. Governing council: The apex decision making

INndividual Assignment 5 Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

INndividual Assignment 5 - Article Example Products and services can be spread to others through status posts and pictures, thus the advertising companies get the benefit of passive advertising at a very low cost (88). For example, in the global social networking website Facebook, large companies took the advantage of both interacting with their consumers as well as getting their feedback and photos of the product to gain a wider range of audience. The more people â€Å"like† their pages, it is correlated with many people becoming more aware of their products, which spells as a success in their advertising campaign in Facebook. Using this network in advertising products can be an effective strategy in the promotion of new products and showcasing best-selling items to others, which is why many companies were already on this bandwagon of advertising by making their own product page known among network users. Many companies created their own pages in the social networking giant, and a blog post in 2010 shows which companies and products gained the most number of â€Å"likes† among its users (Porterfield). The blog explains the successful marketing strategies of the top 10 Facebook product pages, two of which, Red Bull Page (ranked number 1) and The Twilight Saga Page (ranked number 9) would be discussed here. First is how Red Bull was able to gain top rank in 2010 for number of â€Å"likes†, which was accomplished by numerous interactive links in the page such as games and video-uploads, as well as the use of attention-grabbing images for fans to â€Å"like† their page (Porterfield). The company did not use too many texts, but rather focused on creative advertising so as to grab the attention of social networking users. Because Red Bull removed the complexities of too much reading and instead used interactive and creative strategies of gaining the interest of interne t citizens, they were able to gain many fans and rank number one in the list. Red Bull as an energy beverage is not a

Idioms in Bilingual Dictionaries Essay Example for Free

Idioms in Bilingual Dictionaries Essay A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more languages, and it reflects the vocabulary of a language. Its purpose is to provide information on the meaning of words, combinations with other words, sometimes also pronunciation and other aspects of a language. Dictionaries can be classified by many different aspects – for example, a dictionary can be monolingual, bilingual, bilingualised or even multilingual. If the dictionary is bilingual, it can be either unidirectional or bidirectional. Dictionaries can deal with general language, with special terms or specific area of a language and dictionaries vary for their purposes. Thus, dictionaries can also be classified according to their size. Usually the most popular dictionaries are monolingual and bilingual, and this essay aims at exploring the usage of multiword expressions, idioms in particular, in bilingual dictionaries. Burkhanov (1998) defines a bilingual dictionary as â€Å"a work of reference whose word list is organized in the following way: L1L2, which means that lemmata of one language usually referred to as an object of language, are explicated using another language – a target language† (Burkhanov, 1998: 29). Bilingual dictionaries have a longer history than monolingual, and their position is already well-established. Typically bilingual dictionaries are translation dictionaries, and at this point the treatment of idioms and other multiword expressions should be seriously considered. Bilingual dictionaries can be general or specialized, encyclopaedic or linguistic, alphabetical or thematic, diachronic or synchronic, in print or electronic format and they also vary according to various user groups and various sizes. Bilingual dictionaries can be divided according to their purpose – if your native language is the SL, then the dictionary is for encoding needs (also called an active dictionary), but if your native language is the TL, then the dictionary is for decoding needs (also called a passive dictionary). This active-passive parameter is â€Å"often equated with encoding vs decoding or productive vs receptive parameters† and â€Å"is used to classify bilingual dictionaries with respect to tasks for which they are employed by their users† (Podolej, 2009: 25). Dictionaries are organised in word entries or lexical items, and â€Å"a lexical item is any word, abbreviation, partial word, or phrase which can figure in a dictionary (often as the headword of an entry)† (Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M. , 2008: 163). As the authors point out, â€Å"it is important to be aware of the various kinds of lexical item, as there are important differences in the way each is handled in the dictionary† (ibid. ). Lexical items are grouped as the single items and multiword expressions (ibid. ). Among multiword expressions there are classified fixed and semi-fixed phrases, phrasal idioms, compounds, phrasal verbs and support verb constructions, and the authors have raised a question of â€Å"which multiword items should be treated as ‘multiword expressions [ in our dictionaries? † (ibid. : 166). Multiword expressions, including idioms, constitute a very important part of the vocabulary and need to be included in both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, but it is of particular importance to include them in bilingual learners’ dictionaries, since â€Å"language learners may not recognize them as significant units of meaning, cannot usually compose them, and will often have proble ms understanding them† (ibid. : 167). The authors have provided several types of multiword expressions, the first of them being fixed and semi-fixed phrases, for example, transparent collocations (to risk one’s life), fixed phrases (ham and eggs), similes (white as snow), catch phrases (horses of courses), proverbs (too many cooks), quotations (to be or not to be), greetings (good morning), and phatic phrases (have a nice day) (ibid. ). Other type are phrasal idioms that are â€Å"the most difficult [ ] to handle in lexicography† (ibid. : 168). The third type that the authors provide are compounds that â€Å"belong mainly to three word classes: nouns (the most frequent case, e. . , lame duck, civil servant), adjectives (e. g. , sky blue, stone deaf), and verbs (of which by far the most common are the phrasal verbs† (ibid. : 169). The fourth type is a phrasal verb – â€Å"a multiword expression consisting of a verb plus one or more particle(s)† that can â€Å"function either as an adver b (away, out) or as a preposition (with, to), or both (in, through)† (ibid. : 171). The fifth type is the support verb construction, of which the most frequent are make, take, have, give, and do (ibid. : 175). Other authors have made this classification in a more simple way – they argue that there are five types of multiword expressions distinguished, and they are idioms, collocations, phrasal verbs, compounds and support verb constructions (Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M. , 2008: 359). In order to distinguish between different multiword expressions, the difference between a collocation and an idiom must be stated. Cruse (1986) has argued that collocations are â€Å"sequences of lexical items which habitually co-occur, but which are nonetheless fully transparent in the sense that each lexical constituent is also a semantic constituent† (Crude, 1986: 41). Idioms, on the contrary, are expressions â€Å"whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meaning of its parts† (ibid. : 37) and they are usually translated in bilingual dictionaries not with lexical, but semantic equivalents. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, the word â€Å"idiom† is derived from late Latin idioma, meaning â€Å"a peculiarity in language† and Greek idioma, â€Å"peculiarity, peculiar phraseology† (Online 1), but â€Å"with a passage of time this word has acquired quite different denotations† (Cruse, 1986. : 176). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English provides the following explanation for the word â€Å"idiom†: â€Å"a group of words that has a special meaning that is different from the ordinary meaning of each separate word† (Online 2). Oxford online dictionary provides quite similar explanation â€Å"a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words† (Online 3). One more interesting definition of an â€Å"idiom† is that it is â€Å"a meaning where the sum’s meaning is different from that of the parts† (Jones and West 1992, Johnson and Schlichting, 2004, quoted in Fuste-Hermann, 2008:4). Dictionaries have existed for hundreds of years and they have been developed to meet practical needs of people. The language evolution throughout centuries has been â€Å"towards more idiomatic usage and more lexicalized combinations† (Yong and Peng, 2007: 175). Idioms are â€Å"a unique part of the lexicon and have proved to be the most difficult part in vocabulary acquisition for both native learners ad foreign language learners† (ibid. ). Each language contains a large number of idioms, and consequently, â€Å"the treatment of idioms in dictionaries, particularly in bilingual dictionaries, has become an essential issue in dictionary compilation and research† (ibid. ). As the authors argue, idioms started to attract the focus of language researchers only quite recently, and a lot of work still has to be done in this field, â€Å"either from the position of compiling a dictionary of idioms or from the position of treating idioms as an essential part of the process of making a dictionary† (ibid. . Idioms â€Å"are not a separate part of the language which one can choose either to use or to omit† (Seidl and McMordie, 1978:1, quoted in Yong and Peng, 2007: 175). Idioms form â€Å"an essential part of the general vocabulary of language, thus accounting for a large proportion of the dictionary text in both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries† (Yong and Peng, 2007: 175). Both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries should â€Å"decide where in the ordering of the entry should go compounds, phrasal verbs [ ] and other MWEs, if they are to be included within the entry of one of their component words† (Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M, 2008: 253). Usually they are considered as secondary headwords or they can be located in a separate section, entitled ‘Compounds’ or â€Å"Phrases’, but there is another option of giving them a separate entry distinct from any related entry (ibid. ). In general there are five most common options of handling the multiword expressions, including idioms, in dictionaries – there is a possibility to make each multiword expression as a headword; to make selected types of multiword expressions in their own right; to put all multiword expressions within the same entry, at the very end in separate blocks for each type; to put all multiword expressions within the same entry, within the ‘appropriate sense’ in separate blocks and there is an option of putting all multiword expressions within the same entry, within the ‘appropriate’ sense, but without differentiating the multiword expression type (ibid. : 254). However, according to Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M. â€Å"the tendency nowadays is to avoid secondary headwords if possible, as embedding one entry (however reduced) within another simply makes it more difficult for the user to find anything† (Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M. , 2008: 493). Idioms should be covered to some extent in general bilingual dictionaries, but usually they are found in subordinate parts of entries. When compiling a bilingual dictionary, the question of classification of idioms must be decided according to a key word in idiom. For example, the idioms pigheaded person and to eat like a pig could be found together under one entry word pig. In practice most of bilingual and monolingual dictionaries use this approach that seems the easiest way to decode a language. However, the second possibility involves â€Å"identifying the underlying function expressed and recording idioms under this category; for example, the previous two examples would be classified under the function to insult someone† (Akbarov, 2010: 137). Idioms do not co mply with other aspects of language that can be more easily explained â€Å"in terms of rules and semantic characteristics† (ibid. : 140). As idioms and other multiword expressions are quite hard to treat in dictionaries, the compilers of bilingual dictionaries have to be very careful towards this question because we all know how annoying it is to open a dictionary and fail to find a word that we were looking for. There is no dictionary that could include all words, and therefore lexicographers have to make decisions on selection of words in it, including idioms. Dictionaries are often regarded as a basic tool in the process of foreign language learning. Bilingual dictionaries have been the traditional lexical resource for learning a new language. Change is not something that dictionaries undertake very easily as their purpose and place is indisputably significant. Of course, modern dictionaries come in different formats – they can be monolingual, bilingual, paper or electronic dictionaries, but when it comes to defining the meaning and giving definitions or equivalents in other languages, the dictionary is the same. There are many problems the lexicographer has to deal with when compiling a bilingual dictionary and the main problem is the basic lack of equivalence which exists between different languages. According to Nida (1958: 279), the semantic problems that occur in compiling a bilingual dictionary are different from and also more complicated that those problems that occur in the compilation of a monolingual dictionary. The reason for that is the fact that monolingual dictionaries are compiled mostly for users who participate in and understand the culture being described, whereas bilingual dictionaries describe a culture that differs from that of the users. Baker and Kaplan (1994: 7, quoted in Gauton, 2008: 108) argue that â€Å"equivalence is nebulous in nature, and cannot be represented by way of neat translation equivalents†. The perfect translation in a bilingual dictionary where the SL word is translatable perfectly is very rare, and in the case of multiword expressions and idioms compilers have to be ready to face problems. As Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M argue, â€Å"the equivalence relationship between a pair of words, SL and TL, varies from exact to very approximate, from perfect to just-adequate† and the factors that play a role in evaluating SL-TL equivalence are the semantic content (single words and multiword expressions), collocational context (mainly single words), vocabulary type (single words and multiword expressions), message (of phrases, including idioms and sayings) and function (Atkins, B. T. and Rundel, M, 2008: 468). Thus, there no right and wrong about how to present the various types of multiword expressions (ibid. : 491). As Yong and Peng (2007) argue, â€Å"idioms are the evolutional product of national culture and social life† (Yong and Peng, 2007: 176), thus â€Å"they are conventionally lexicalized linguistic units and ‘ready-made utterances’† (Crystal,1985: 152, quoted in Yong and Peng, 2007: 176). â€Å"Structurally, the elements in idioms are usually bound together† and they â€Å"often do not permit the usual variability they display in other contexts† (ibid. ). Thus, â€Å"from the semantic point of view, idioms must be interpreted in connection with the historical and cultural contexts from which they emerged† (Yong and Peng, 2007: 176). Idioms are unified and the meaning cannot be guessed without knowing its â€Å"sociocultural context† even though the meaning of separate words is clear (ibid. ). However, â€Å"some idioms are historically traceable with translations in several languages† (Fuste-Hermann, 2008:5). The sociocultural context is of extreme importance in dealing with idioms in bilingual dictionaries as there are the so-called â€Å"culture-bound† words that denote objects or concepts peculiar to some particular SL culture (Gauton, 2008: 110). It means that for these culture-bound items there are no translational equivalents in the TL and in order to overcome this lack, lexicographers use the explanatory equivalent in their illustrative sentences (ibid. : 110-111). Mtuze (1990, quoted in Gauton, 2008: 111) illustrates that â€Å"cultural issues could create problems for lexicographers because they might not comprehend certain concepts foreign to their own culture†. As Fuste-Herrmann argues, â€Å"there are three major factors affecting idiom comprehension: semantic transparency, familiarity and context† (Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). The first one, the semantic transparency, deals with â€Å"the relative correspondence of an idiom’s literal and figurative meanings† (Nippold and Taylor 1995, quoted in Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). There can be a transparent and an opaque idiom, â€Å"a transparent idiom’s meaning matches closely with the image conjured up by that idiom† and in contrast â€Å"an opaque idiom conjures up an image that is not helpful in interpretation† (Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). For example, the idiom a piece of cake could associate with some enjoyable task, whereas beat around the bush has nothing to do with its meaning (ibid. ). Therefore â€Å"the previous studies have concluded that transparent idioms are generally easier to decipher than opaque idioms† (Nippold and Taylor 1995, quoted in  Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). The transparency of idioms can be also discussed â€Å"in terms of their decomposition† (Glucksberg, 2001, quoted in Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). Idioms that are decompositional â€Å"are able to be modified† – for example, â€Å"he broke the ice, she breaks the ice, after the ice was broken etc† (Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 6). Therefore â€Å"the noncompositional idioms cannot survive the same alterations† (ibid. ). In general â€Å"decompositional idioms are likened to transparent idioms, and less decompositional idioms are equated with opaque idioms† (ibid. ). The other factor is familiarity – â€Å"the frequency with which an idiom occurs in a language† (ibid. : 7). It is â€Å"relative and depends on such factors as geographical location, linguistic background [ ], culture and age† (Nippold and Rudinski 1991, quoted in Fuste-Hermann, 2008: 7). The main idea is that the more frequently the idiom is used, it becomes more familiar (Fuste-Herrmann, 2008: 7). The third factor is context – â€Å"contextual cues are imperative for comprehension of unfamiliar idioms in either the written or oral modality, particularly if idioms are more opaque in nature† (Qualls et. al. , 2003, quoted in Fuste-Herrmann, 2008: 8). According to Fuste-Herrmann, â€Å"in the last several decades many researchers have speculated about how idioms are interpreted† (Fuste-Herrmann, 2008: 8). The first hypotheses that she advances is the â€Å"Early Hypotheses† that implied the idea of idioms when encountered for the first time in spoken or written language, â€Å"the listener or reader tries to interpret the idiom literally†, thus, â€Å"when the literal meaning fails to make sense, the listener/reader hen accesses a mental idiom list, described as a sort of a mental idiom dictionary, in order to determine the figurative meaning† (Searle, 1979, quoted in Fuste-Herrmann, 2008: 9). Swinney and Cutler (1979) have â€Å"challenged the existence of a mental idiom list† and also proposed that â€Å"the meaning of idioms were processed simultaneously as figurative and literal† and â€Å"the most appropriate interpretation wins† (Fuste-Herrmann, 2008: 9). Idioms are quite hard to acquire when learning a second language and it is considered that their arbitrary nature makes it difficult for learners to learn them, thus they are not easy to translate. Translating multiword expressions requires that they are not the exact word-to-word translation, but a translation of semantic equivalence should be offered. Traditionally idioms are perceived as rather fixed expressions that learners have difficulties with, but more and more modern dictionaries include idioms as well as other multiword expressions in their word lists that facilitate the language comprehension. As idioms can be found in either separate or sub-entries, sometimes it could be quite hard to find its location in a dictionary. For this purpose electronic dictionaries could be more useful than paper ones as it is more easy to locate the necessary idiom. Bilingual dictionaries are meant for learning a new language, and as idioms constitute a substantial part of any language, they should be treated properly and with care.

The Social Issues Of The Frankenstein Novel English Literature Essay

The Social Issues Of The Frankenstein Novel English Literature Essay The use of first person in the novel causes the responder to imagine themselves in the situation faced by the protagonist; this powerful technique is used to subconsciously force the responder to dwell on the consequences of Victors actions, drawing them into a debate of morals and ethics in their mind. Blade Runner is a product of the 80s where corporate greed through overindustrialisation has severed humanitys relationship with nature. Ridley Scott extrapolated these negative and dystopian views from the values he witnessed in the 1980s society and constructed Blade Runner as a warning. This warning is reflected through his profound use of film noir. From the opening scene the audience is immediately submersed into a post-modern, post-industrial and post-apocalyptic city resembling hell, this scene is an exaggerated reconstruction of society in the 1980s during which time people were fearful. America and Russia were both on the brink of nuclear war and had enough atomic weapons to utterly decimate the world; this potential global destruction is reflected in the opening scene of Blade Runner. This scene shows a hell that has come to exist on earth, an urban city extends as far as can be seen, a scarred world which has been devastated by us. The rising fire columns are symbolic of the fires of hell which have sprung forth on earth through our exploitation of the worlds resources though our ignorance and greed. Asian advertisements floating above the city on dirigibles serve as a constant reminder of the Asianisation of western civilization as a consequence of corporate greed. Frankenstein was composed during a time of major scientific developments; this is evident as science plays a central role in the story. Shelleys Frankenstein is based on the dogma of the Romantic Movement to create a world in which the protagonists desires for the omnipotent powers of God and creation have bypassed all ideas of conventional authority. Victors reflective words: how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge, can be seen as her warning of the dangers of disrespecting authority and the order of things. The Tyrell Corporation is the ruling power in Blade Runner, producing replicants that are more human than human, by enabling them to have an emotional capacity. This is visible when Rachel angrily confronts Deckard: Are these questions testing whether Im a replicant or a lesbian, Mr Deckard? Ironically the replicants have a greater capacity for emotional responses, showing more compassion and love than the humans. Shelleys use of epistolary narrative adds a subliminal layer and speculates at the consequences of what Frankenstein has done; her warning is present throughout the story, forcefully questioning the ideas of scientists and science during the Romantic era, this reinforces the dangers of humanitys desires for playing the role of Creator. Frankensteins core completion imitates the Romantic Movements influence on Shelleys ideas, and her criticisms of the French and Industrial revolutions. The imagery of the patched corpse through the lexical chain of gruesome descriptions: his skin lustrous blackà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ yellow skinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ watery eyesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. shriveled complexion, and repeated use of terminology associated with the horror genre for referring to the monster bring about feelings of disgust for this scientific milestone. This physical unusualness is what makes it initially seem like the monster in society. However, Shelley brings forth a sympathetic response from the audience because the monster quickly portrays itself as misunderstood. The narrative, Frankenstein is one that allows the audience to realise a different side to the story as readers are able to understand the reasons behind the monsters murders, thus allowing further depth in the exploration of the human nature because of the different views presented in the novel. Frankenstein overflows with letters, notes and journals as Waltons letters envelop the entire tale; Victors story fits inside Waltons and the monsters inside Frankensteins. This is an important aspect of the structure of the book as the various writings serve as a concrete manifestation of attitudes and emotions within the characters. Victors warning to Walton: avoid ambitions of science and discoveries is symbolic of Shelleys hatred of the visionaries of the French and Industrial Revolution. Similarly, Scott expresses his heedfulness of the state of the human race. In particular global warming, the development of genetic engineering and nuclear weapons during the Cold War. During this time people were fearful of imminent doom by nuclear war, whilst at the same time fearful of the rapid developments science had made in the field of genetics and the controversy raised by its applications. Scotts warning present in Blade Runner is of the potential outcome if we allow certain actions to be taken without consideration of the consequences. By making the audience realise that by continuing on our current path can only bring about humanitys divorce from the natural world he leads us to ask the question what humanity is and is there a place for nature in an artificial world. Shelleys warnings are enhanced by the juxtaposition of Victor Frankensteins relationship with nature to that of his creation, whereas Victor, due to his unhealthy immersion in science is numb to its charms, and results in his near constant solitude. Frankensteins creation a more intimate connection with the pleasant showers and sunny warmth of spring, and many human qualities that Frankenstein lacks, this characterisation captures Romantics idolisation of nature, cautioning us against the dehumanising effect of removing ourselves from nature and natural order. We can see the reflections of Shelleys beliefs and the beliefs of Romantics in the novel Frankenstein, which looks to the social conventions of the time in order to warn us of the punishment for transgressing into the realm of God. Scott also draws upon the social conventions of his time. The dark scenes represent Scotts interpretation of the darkness within society, which in turn represents the ruthlessness of a material society.

Structural Biology in Pharmaceutical Research

Structural Biology in Pharmaceutical Research INTRODUCTION Molecular biology plays a key role and contributes a lot in determining the 3D structure of a molecule be it proteins, nucleotides or any other biological macromolecule. It also helps in finding the target sites when it comes to drug designing. Many structural biology techniques are used in the field of pharmaceutical research. These mainly include X-ray crystallography and NMR Spectroscopy. However, structural biology also includes the help of bioinformatics. Structure based drug design plays a major role when it comes to pharmaceutical research and also it has advanced a lot over the years. The remarkable discovery of peptidomimetics and nonpeptides proves this. This was done using techniques like X ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy as well as other computer based methods. One of the widely used tools in structural biology is X-ray crystallography. This is used to determine the atomic as well as the molecular structure of a crystal where the crystalline atoms cause diffraction of X-rays in many specific directions. It is a form of high resolution microscopy. Using this technique, visualizing protein structures at the atomic level becomes easier and helps in understanding its functions. It also gives information about how proteins react with other molecules and undergo changes in their conformation. As well as the process of catalysis with respect to enzymes. All this knowledge is necessary for designing drugs which are meant to ta rget specific sites or are used for industrial processes. Crystallography, being the most widely used technique may not be successful at all times. With this, NMR comes to the rescue. It helps in elucidating 3D structures of target ligand complexes. With advances in genome sequencing, protein expressions, crystallography and NMR; these have helped in using protein 3D structure for fast discovery of drugs. The role of structural biology and bioinformatics in this is that they help in the manufacturing of drugs that are target specific and well optimized. Also, due to the determination of structure, fragment binding becomes possible. For a drug to work efficiently, it needs to bind to the specific site or the target proteins. Using computer for this is a very good technique which finds and optimizes target proteins that are required. For a substance to bind a target it has be extremely specific like a lock and a key. Structural biology methods and molecular modeling are tools that are used in the developments of such molecules. In the process of drug discovery, computational chemistry proves to be a tool of great help. After the molecule has binded to the desired molecule and the binding properties are known, the suitability of the compound can be improved using the computer. The drug’s binding affinity can be calculated digitally using the computer. Also, using these methods it is also possible to calculate if the changes in the structure would lead to any undesirable or toxic properties. These methods save a lot of time as compared to lab work especially in the early stages of drug designing. Due to this, an increase in the success rates can be observed. Fig 1: Drug Discovery Process Courtesy: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609333/figure/fig1/ X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY In order to determine the precise molecular structure of the target protein, X-ray structure analysis is used. In this, the crystal lattice structure of the protein diffracts the X-ray beam in a typical way. The diffraction pattern can be analyzed and due to this, the density of electrons can be read which are present in the parts of the target protein. This in turn, helps in determination of the position of the atoms. Several repetition of this process and refining the image is done till the researchers obtain a 3D structure of the target molecule. Usage on X-ray crystallography in drug discovery has been present since a long time where 30 years ago the 1st three dimensional structure of proteins were determined. However, not all the pharmaceutical companies resort to this technique as it is considered time consuming and too expensive. A total change in drug design has occurred in the past years, thus using 3D structures in the designing processes. For structure that were not available with X-ray crystallography, other methods were used which included comparative models based on homologues. Crystal structures of key drug targets are now available like AIDS drugs such as Agenerase and Viracept were developed using the crystal structure of HIV protease and the influenza drug Relenza was designed using the crystal structure of neuraminidase.Drugs originating from structure based design have entered clinic trials and some of them have even been marketed as drugs now. Knowing the protein structure is a key component in the process of drug design. It is used in lead optimization which is a process that revolves around the usage of structure for guiding chemical modification of the molecule of lead for giving the perfect fit with respect to shape, bonds and other interactions. Protein structure is also used in target selection; this involves homology recognition but with the recent advances in structural genomics this has become easier. X-ray crystallography is also used in the direct screening of chemical fragments. Astex Technology has developed â€Å"Pyramid†, where fragment libraries are screened in cocktails using X-ray crystallography. Fragment hits that are derived from Pyramid are optimized in order to maintain good ligand efficiency. NMR NMR spectroscopy was the first structural technique to be made full use in fragment screening. Target Immobilized NMR Screening (TINS) Usage of NMR spectroscopy on targets that are immobilized helps in binding of small molecules. A process called as Target Immobilized NMR Screening (TINS) has ennumerable advantages; one of them being that a minimum quantity of the non isotopically labeled protein is needed. This method helps in binding in the range of KD values of 100nM to 20mM. If the reference protein is selected carefully, the number of false positive hits that one may get can be avoided. Due to this, maximum valid hits are ensured. These hits can be treated with biological assays. A variety of soluble proteins as well as membrane proteins have been screened. The combination of target immobilization and small screening of fragments using NMR proves to be of immense help in Early Drug discovery. STEPS IN DRUG DISCOVERY PROCESS TARGET IDENTIFICATION FROM SEQUENCE STRUCTURE HOMOLOGY RECOGNITON Structural bioinformatics is a backbone for the identification of new members of supefamilies. Protein structures impart a major information about the families and super families. The proteins that have evolved would be having some common structures or features that they would be exhibiting thus leading to the importance of â€Å"homology recognition†. An example of this was the recognition of HIV proteinase which belonged to be a member of the pepsin/renin superfamily. Recognition of distant homologues can be done using methods like sequence-structure matching that are classified as profile methods or threading. Profile methods involve the sequence comparison algorithms using traditional methods. Computer programs like FUGUE aid in this and helps in the recognition of homologues. Another method used is Threading which fits a probe sequence and evaluates compatibility between the sequenced and the structure that is proposed. This method is powerful for fold recognition. Example of a computer based program is GenTHREADER. After the homologue of the structure is known and identifies, it can be modeled using a variety of procedures. Although structural bioinformatics is helpful, it is necessary to have an accurate experimental structure. Target validation and the identification of ligand binding regions Structures defined by structural genomics programs are mainly of proteins that do not have a known function but they have been identified as proteins only on the basis of their gene sequences. Hence, the need for the development of computerized based methods arises which would identify sites which are involved in the interactions. PROSITE, a sequence motif database identifies the specific residues that have functions. Several attempts have been made to predict the interaction sites using computerized based methods either by identifying high-energy conformations or identifying clefts that can accommodate ligands. LEAD DISCOVERY The trait of a target is based on the number of drug like ligands for a target class. Classification of the targets into families has helped in designing compound libraries for particular families. Screening of a small fragments or molecule is needed and this can be done using biophysical assays. Ligand docking is a method that helps to find the best binding position and orientation. The best docking programmes are successful in dockin 70-80% of ligands in the ligand-protein complexes. A major drawback of this method is that there are difficulties in predicting affinities of different compounds. CONCLUSION Knowledge of the three-dimensional structures of protein targets plays a major role in all stages of drug discovery. Its place in lead optimization is well established with large teams of structural biologists recruited into all major pharmaceutical companies. The success of the method is evident from drugs in use and new ones reaching the market. But structural biology and bioinformatics show that many key targets for drug discovery are multidomain and multiprotein complexes. Such systems pose significant challenges not only for characterization using structural techniques but also because the inter-protein surfaces are usually poor in distinguishing features. BIBLIOGRAPHY RESEARCH PAPERS: Blundell, T., Sibanda, B., Montalvao, R.W., Brewerton, S., Chelliah, V., Worth, C., Harmer, N., Davies, O.,1 and Burke D(2006) Structural biology and bioinformatics in drug design: opportunities and challenges for target identification and lead discovery. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 361(1467): 413–423. Congreve, M., Murray CW., and Blundell T(2005) Structural biology and drug discovery. Drug Discov Today. 2005 Jul 1;10(13):895-907. BOOK: Structural Genomics and High Throughput Structural Biology(2006)edited by Michael Sundstrom, Martin Norin, Aled Edwards. WEBSITE: http://www.pharmaceutical-business-review.com/suppliers/zobio/products/nmr-based-structural-biology http://www.bayerpharma.com/en/research-and-development/technologies/research-technologies/computational-chemistry-structural-biology/index.php

A Nation of Murderers or a Nation of Freedom: Abortion in 2003 Essay

A Nation of Murderers or a Nation of Freedom: Abortion in 2003 On January 22, 1973, in addition to disease, murders, and other tragedies, the probability of every person’s existence in America became even more jeopardized. That winter day was the date that abortion became legal by the Supreme Court in the case â€Å"Roe vs. Wade.† Since then, a decision had to be made during each pregnancy whether or not to terminate the growing fetus, resulting in the possibility of someone’s life never existing. One of the main problems today is determining at what point during the pregnancy constitutes a living being and not just a fetus inside the womb. During the first trimester there are too many aspects interpreted as religious, political, and medical opinions rather than scientific facts to determine whether or not the fetus is a living being. Consequently, the argument with the most substance is whether or not a woman should have the right to choose a termination of pregnancy during the second and third trimester and should it be legal. One of the standpoints of defense for abortion is that if medical abortions were outlawed, women would seek illegal, more dangerous methods of terminating a pregnancy. As a website on Planned Parenthood describes, â€Å"In the two decades before abortion was legal in the U.S., it's been estimated that nearly a million women per year sought illegal abortions. Thousands died. Tens of thousands were mutilated† (Abortion 2). The demand for abortions even under these extreme circumstances is because of the threat of injury to the woman if the baby is born, as well as inability to provide the baby a healthy and financially stable childhood. For tens of thousands of women with heart disease, kidney disea... ...over the exact point during the pregnancy a fetus is alive and laws can be made accordingly. Until then we remain a society of diverse opinions. Works Cited - â€Å"Abortion.† Planned Parenthood Organization. 26 October 2003. - Hymowitz, Kay S. â€Å"Who Decides?† Commentary October 2003: p82-86. - â€Å"NARAL.† National Abortion and Reproduction Rights Action League. 26 October 2003. - Nash, Madeline. â€Å"Inside the Womb.† Time 11 November 2002: p34-36. - Ranalli, Paul. â€Å"Knowledge of Fetal Development and Fetal Pain Grows Over Last 10 Years†. Helping to Change the Climate of Opinion. 26 October 2003. . - Taillion, Marcel. â€Å"Abortion.† 26 October 2003 .

Essay examples --

OBSERVATIONS/EXPERIENCES Mapro Foods Pvt. Ltd Mapro Foods is committed to its production process of various products such as fruit jams, fruit concentrates etc. with high regard for nutrition and taste. Mapro was the pioneer of fruit-based confectionery in India with its success over five decades of becoming market leader of western India in its industry. Also it has magnificently led the socio-economic progress of Gureghar region. The indigenous product: ‘Faleros’ have secured a strong position in the market. Also a glorious national flag being set-up on the company ground made the processing unit splendid. Also their shop where one can taste the product before buying it. Amul An Indian dairy co-operative based at Anand, Gujarat. Its model is of three levels which include dairy cooperative societies at the village level federated under a milk union at the district level and a federation of member unions at the state level. At the Pune unit, we saw processing and packaging of milk. Only milk and curd are the products which are dispatched from here. Also mostly women work during daytime to boost cleanliness as well as hygiene. A proper automatized plant set up where least manpower is used with optimum used of technology. Shetty Chemicals and Engineering works Pvt Ltd. Shetty Chemical & Engg works Pvt Ltd is engaged in the business of manufacturing and selling claimed and fused Alumina products like Refractories. They have gained almost 50 years’ experience in manufacturing this product of best Quality. It is company with good team but poor infrastructure as well as lack of organized way of doing work. The warehouse and the production unit being at the same place led to dumping of raw materials and finished products. The higher mana... ...s with measure of safety, quality as well as professionalism. Their wide portfolios have allowed them to be associated with leading OEM customers. FIEM has become a supplier not only in India but also in Europe and USA. The experience to visit this company showed us the professionalism prevailing in corporates as well as the technologies used in R & D department. Ethics Art and Design Bharti Khandelwal, a women entrepreneur who explained her journey of becoming successful on her seven pillars. Her ‘Can Go’ attitude and how to manage work with things available was inspiring. She being more than 4 years into this work explained how she got the privilege to work with country’s best designers, labels, corporate, & brands. Her experiential journey understandings, reason behind company’s name as well as the belief of being worker of our own business was quite perceptive.

On Culture and Socialization

I chose these articles and chose to use it in an example of culture and socialization between males and females (gender) and discuss more in the following paragraph. The research I used, strongly suggests that there are still and will always be gender-specific communication traits. In my experience, a major requisite for effective intercommunication is making sure the receiver understands the message sent. Effective communication is not so much that I send a message -verbal or nonverbal -but that the person I am communicating with gets the message and responds. If not, miscommunication and misunderstandings may result. An example is when my husband and I have a disagreement over something. It surprises me how this can come from out of nowhere. Another prime example of an underlying cause of miscommunication is obviously due to the many different communication styles, content and method of interpretation of males and females. The interest in and importance of this topic solely, can be found not only in scholarly journals and books, but also in bestsellers. I have the book by Deborah Tannen, You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation, which is one of the main reasons I chose the two articles, especially the self- maintenance in conversation (including not just the control category, but achievement, opposition, attribution, anger, denial, withdrawal, and prevarication). I do believe I have experienced all of these topics in my marriage, let alone other interpersonal communications. For example, if my husband and I are in an argument, I know I’m right, no, really, because I’ve done the research; yet he still insists on telling me I’m wrong. My blood boils, maybe he knows this. Regardless, I need to work on my fight vs. flight methodology. He is not right, period. I belittle him in my mind for not knowing what I believe everyone would know. My behavior is almost incomprehensible at times concerning my desire to control, my level of anger in a belligerent way, and my actual denial in questioning myself about marrying an idiot. I don’t know how many times I have said something to the tune of, look, this is just not going to work out, blah, blah, blah, you should think about looking for somewhere else to live (knowing this will never happen in my level of commitment). Relationship therapist John Gray's 1992 bestselling book Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus explains the difference in communication styles of men and women by humorously suggesting that they are from different planets, and that these differences contribute to communication conflicts. Gray puts forward that men and women often appear to be speaking entirely different languages, even when the vocabulary, syntax, and grammar they use are the same. Deborah Tannen, whose book, You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation, was on the New York Times Best Seller list for nearly four years and brought gender differences in communication style to the general public. Tannen contends that differences between the communication styles of women and men are the result of more than culture and socialization, but are inherent in the basic make up of each gender. Tannen, 1990) Taking a more scholarly perspective, Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz contends that among other things, the field of communication includes â€Å"the study of meaning, the study of how people convey ideas for themselves and to one another† (Leeds-Hurwitz, p. xv). Saying the same thing may have different meanings for men and for women. (Tannen, 1990) argues that men and women have different styles of con versing, of listening, of talking, and even have different purposes at stake in most conversations. She concludes that these different styles produce different meanings of the same words, and lead to miscommunication. In the three preceding paragraphs, I learned something I never knew. Wood stated â€Å"Researching communications between men and women reveals that the rules taught through childhood play are evident in adult interaction† (Wood, J. , 2004, p. 117). She makes the point, however, that â€Å"not all women follow rules of feminine communication communities and not all men follow rules of masculine ones† (Wood, J. 2004). Tannen contends, differences between the communication styles of women and men are the result of more than culture and socialization, but are inherent in the basic make up of each gender (Tannen, 1990). I never knew that, but I personally don’t think there is enough evidence, nor do I agree. I think just because a child might see his parents arguing the majority of the time and eventually divorcing after staying together for the sake of the children; it’s not always true about rules being taught in childhood play being evident in adult interaction. I think this statement might just need more research on the age of the child, if by rules she is referring to interpersonal communication, etc. I know many now adults who have been through a lot of negative interactions between their parents (arguing, fighting, and yelling at each other) while growing up to include general observation of adult conversation(s). These individuals have become excellent communicators, and have even mastered an ability to successfully teach interpersonal communications. The majority have also been in long-term what appears to be a successful marriage or relationship. I researched further in my book (next paragraph) to find out Tannen has some of the same thoughts as Wood on children being socially molded and trained to speak separate languages based on their gender. Because I used a published book and a scholarly article, and because of the information I learned, I have gained a motive to dig deeper into researching their theories and/or ideologies. Both Wood and Tannen agree â€Å"socialization in different gender communities’ accounts for some common misunderstandings between women and men† (Wood, 2004, p. 118). Tannen contends that men and women speak differently in face-to-face conversation because children are socially molded and trained to speak separate languages based on their gender. They both offer examples regarding how males and females discuss problems. When a woman tells a man about something that is troubling her, he responds by offering advice or a solution. On the other hand, women view communication as a way to build connections and are looking for empathy and discussion of feelings prior to advice. According to Wood â€Å"the most common complication in gender communication occurs when a woman says â€Å"Let's talk about us. To many men this often means trouble because they interpret the request as implying there is a problem in a relationship† (Wood, 2004, p. 118) and men are socialized to regard talking about a relationship useful only if there is a problem to be solved. Wood contends, however, that women feel problems are not the only reason to talk about a relationship. Women use talking to build intimacy. Tannen (1990, 1993) points out that both men and women need to understand the basic differences in their communication styles to find common ground and understanding. In spite of any genetic, biological or socialization factors that lead to ineffective communication between men and women (specifically my husband and I), effective interpersonal communication can be learned. I think once an understanding is reached, through patience and time, we (my husband and I) tend to accept; and as inept as it sounds, positively tolerate the opposite genders communications, and have more meaningful exchange of information, ideas and feelings in our personal communication. I’ve found different meanings in his actions whether verbal or non-verbal. We now agree to disagree and long ago came to understand what we once misunderstood in our interpersonal communication. At one point, when Tannen concluded that the different styles (genetic, biological or socialization factors) produce different meanings of the same words, and lead to miscommunication; I immediately thought of how these different meanings of the same words, etc. , in an interpersonal conversation could lead to a conversation of misunderstanding without the participants even knowing. As stated in Bridges not Walls, Editor John Stewart, the statement â€Å"I want to be me, but I need you† (confirmed by Stewart J. 2009, p. 95), made me seriously think about my true need to be both intrapersonal and interpersonal. So, from here, I feel I need to maintain a sort of parallel twist in working on culture and socialization, but not only verbally. I think when people think of interpersonal communication, they don’t consider nonverbal communication; which can als o lead to misunderstandings, or different interpretations of the same set of facts, causing breakdowns in communication. Television and magazine advertisements, as well as media portrayals of men and women, often perpetuate stereotypes. Men are macho and women are happy housewives or submissive playthings. It is important for effective communication not to make assumptions. On culture and socialization; I cringe at the fact that physical appearance is the most obvious nonverbal cue we present; it prompts others to perceive us with certain expected personality traits. It is a huge part of culture and socialization. In previous sociology experiments I’ve done, i. e. , I went into a grocery store and purchased a few items. I had just gotten out of bed a couple of hours earlier; no matter whom I had said anything to; one out of five people would respond. Even the cashier and bagboy were kind of stand offish. One day later, I returned, dressed in my work apparel which consisted of a suit, short heels, minimal make-up and hair fixed. It was like a one-hundred eighty degree flip. Random people were friendly, a smile here and there, and even a conversation with the same cashier. They might not have even recognized me from the day before, but I learned a lot about nonverbal communication and how it too, plays a tremendous role in culture and any type of socialization. In an experiment conducted by Schellenberg (1993) reports that good looking subjects were rated more highly than less attractive ones on non-physical traits as well. More attractive persons were also perceived as being more socially sensitive, sexually warm, kind, poised, and interesting than less attractive persons. In sum, they were perceived as having all the more desirable traits. Not only were they rated higher on the personality dimensions, but they were seen as happier and more successful in their lives (p. 129). Old School-Research on nonverbal communication must be approached cautiously. Some studies mark masculinity and femininity as stable, individual traits, when current research has placed us in a better position from which to view masculine and feminine display â€Å"as operating in the service of impression management and social maintenance† (Epstein, 1988, p. 220). I say â€Å"old school† for the research conducted by Epstein in 1988, yet it amazingly still applies research done today on nonverbal communication and gender. Generally, the sexes are attracted to one another on the basis of what Walster and her colleagues called the â€Å"matching hypothesis† ( Knapp, 1989, p. 59). The matching hypothesis argues that we may be attracted to only the best looking partners, but we will accept someone at least as good looking as we are. In other words, we are realistic in our approach to matching ourselves with prospective partners. I know it is true, but it still makes me cringe. It is judgment and judgment is up to God, not us. Conclusion On Cu lture and Socialization and Self-Maintenance in Communication; bettering verbal and nonverbal performance may not change any societal hierarchies, social orders, interpersonal communications, but it may be a first step. Studies have shown that the ability to correctly interpret verbal and nonverbal communications leads to more successful personal relationships. Greater awareness of verbal and nonverbal communication skills may lead to enhanced assertiveness. Being aware of the relationships between power and verbal/nonverbal communications changes the way people view seemingly neutral interactions. The relationship among power, sex, and verbal/nonverbal communications is one that has not been studied sufficiently. Further study of this controversial subject can only help to improve interpersonal communications.

Photostory Essay Essay

This judge is to comment on my delineation bill that I did for my coursework, I will be talking somewhat various things like the lighting, costumes and mise-en-scene, what they did for the mental picture study and how it befriended.The genre I chose for my impression twaddle was a sports genre. I thought it would appeal to the vast volume of male indorsers of around 14-18 years old, as it is a footb both magazine, which I arrive at called The Kick-A-Bout Crew.I think that the reputation I chose would also interest younger readers as an incident like this one could pare up in their e rattlingday lives. In a newsagents local anaesthetic to me, approximately of the space for papers and comics had been taken up by football magazines this is part why I employ a football idea.If I were to sell my magazine, I would be very confident that my score auditory modality would be teenage male childs, and my illusionize market would be female readers as they are non likely to penury to read football stories very much in most cases, notwithstanding not unheard of. I would be very satisfied with this target hearing.The way my story was narrated was through caption boxes and saving bubbles this mend my story quite easy to guess without excessively much difficulty. My captions were being even off at the bottom of a photo, to be read prototypic, while the speech bubbles on the photo, perhaps slipping onto the scene of the schedule to need sure that they didnt bear on up the characters faces. I placed my speech bubbles in the direction the storys pictures were placed, normally flowing from left to practiced so as to make it easier to read.I used many diametric camera rakes, to subtly highlight the events occurring in my story. For my origin photo, I took an establishing shot from a clean dour distance away, taking it from a high angle to symbolize the concomitant that the boys are rightfully fairish kids, unimpeachable in youth an d also to arrangement the readers were the story takes place. In my second photo I take the photo as a medium shot, from a meagerly low angle, so that it appears to the readers that the watching boy is much taller physically and symbolically than capital of Minnesota and prize wake that he is to a greater extent important. For my third and fourth shots, I used eye-level close-ups that display the clear emotion on both of the boys faces, to delineate to the readers the emotions of the boys and put the readers in their positions.The fifth photo is simply an eye-level medium shot that was the plainest and most obvious way to channelise the audience what is happening quite clearly. When my main character, capital of Minnesota, gets tackled, the photo is taken from a high angle from a medium distance for the first view of it, to show the vulnerability of capital of Minnesota to the audience before switching to an eye-level close-up to make the readers see how cheap the tackle was. The attached shot is taken back to a high-angle showing the discomfort and pain that capital of Minnesota is emotional stateing, making him pitiful to the audience and to make them feel sorry for him, whilst not showing the boy, who is helping Paul up in the same light.For the next shot I used another eye-level medium shot, with a slight over-the-shoulder feel to it were you see prize listening in behind the dickens talking boys, to show his sly grabby side to the more judgmental of the readers.For my junior(a) shot I used an eye-level long shot to fit the characters all in but not leave too much background so the audience are drawn to the colour and natural process of the shot. And finally I used an eye-level close-up of Jimmy getting punched the camera is supposedly a first-person view from Paul, to make the audience feel as though theyre throwing the punch.I think that all of these different angles arrest really illustrated the point that I was assay to make in each photo , they help keep the readers entertained and even multifariousness of involved and would easily help them to empathize the characters.I used particular work in my background to lure my readers management and immediately pick out them the type of story I fill chosen. I used a background of green and white like a football field and had the title set against a ghastly and white football, in the actual title the word distasteful was a chilling blood going in the style of chiller. For each of my photos I used a different colour for each caption boxes to try and not make the page too tire and also to try and describe the photos, for font at the superstart of the story where it is just a lucky kick about the caption box is a nipping yellow, while proceeding through the story coming to the tackle it has slowing sullen to a violent shade of scarlet.I shot my photo story at Dundonald Playing Fields as it fitted in with the story and provided a good mise-en-scene. Its in the gro unds of a brassy looking high rail to show that these kids lead a normal educate life and this is their day to day surroundings, a the dual carriage way in the background shows how busy the place is and stands for their urban lives.I also used different costumes to display the type of characters starring in my photo story. Jimmy wore a black tracksuit to show him as the villain, while Paul wore a green and grey Yankee Ireland tracksuit, to show that he is not exactly good as gold either, but generally decent and has strong loyalties. The boy watching is wearing a impudent red Man U decease to show that he is very friendly and is chasing a spot on Manchester unify Youth team.The only lighting was the good afternoon sky that made it seem as though they were still at school having a lunch-time game. The football and the goalposts fitted in nicely with the story giving it that sporty touch.I also added a competition to star in the magazine, which I thought would really grab the readers attention and spread the word to their friends.These are all the devices and techniques I used to make the story interesting, eye-catching and comprehendible.

A Brief History of the Hybrid Vehicle Essay

jump built in the early 1900s by inventors tinkering with combinations of the galvanizing ram and the shoot a lineeous state rail expression locomotive, crossb red-faced vehicles were dropped when particle acceleratoroline-fueled vehicles became more unquestionable and easier to start, and gasoline fuel more readily available. look into and information of crown of thorns vehicles was revived by precaution closely oil dependency in the1970s and about air pollution in the late 1980s. A number of crisscross vehicles make water been built and easy-tried since 1980. round of these vehicles convey impressed analysts with their performance and menial levels of exhaust and pet component partum consumption.Interest in crisscross vehicles jumped in late 1993 with the announcement of funding for dickens major collaborations. The US Department of Energy sign a five-year, $138 million development agreement with world(a) Motors and a $122 million agreement with Ford to t rope and build preproduction crossbred prototypes that could be merchandiseed in little than 10 years. 1 All these were done beca engross loan-blend voltaic vehicles be expected to be the future of vehicles worldwide. comment ane considers a vehicle to be a crossbreed when it combines railroad railway cardinal or more sources of mightiness.For warning, a mo-ped (a preserve backized pedal bike) is a hybrid beca enforce it combines the role of a gasoline locomotive railway locomotive with the pedal advocator of its rider. Similarly, the gasoline-electric hybrid simple machine is a combination of some(prenominal) an electric simple machine and a gasoline- major powered one. That is, it makes use of two(prenominal) electricity and gasoline to provide the muscle to incline the wheels of the ramcar. epithet 1 shows a gas-powered car. 2 Components Of A gasoline Powered automobile The 4-cylinder railway locomotive converts gasoline into gesture so that the car keister move. The easiest way it does this is to turn off the gasoline inside the engine.thitherfore is numbers as an privileged combustion engine i. e. combustion takes place intern on the wholey. petrol powered car engines typically have oer degree Celsius horsepower and operate at speeds up to 8000 RPM. The fuel cooler hive aways and supplies gasoline to the engine. It brush aside typically store enough fuel to provide the engine with vigour capable of locomote the car done and through a distance of 300 ccs or more. Figure 2 below shows an electric car, which has a solidification of batteries that provides electricity to an electric motor. The motor turns a transmittal, and the transmittance turns the wheels. 3Components Of An electrical Car The batteries store and provide postal code to the electric motor in an electric car just as the fuel tank does for the engine in a gasoline powered car. It normally gives the car a range of 50 100 miles which is such( prenominal) slight than that typically provided by a fuel tank (300 miles). The electric motor is the craft that provides bm in an electric car. It converts the push button it receives from the batteries into motility which is use to turn a transmission system which and thence in turn rotates the wheels. It is able to wrench up to 15000 RPM and has up to 100 kW of power.Since this motion is assorted to the transmission, the transmission also spins the wheel up to this rate. Thus, electric cars would tend to move blistering than gasoline powered cars. Components Common To twain The Electric Car And The flatulency Powered Car The transmission is the whatsis that does the actual turning of the wheel in both cars. There be several(prenominal) ways of trust the two sources of power found in a hybrid car. The Parallel mark Car This has a fuel tank which supplies gasoline to the engine. In addition, it has a set of batteries that supplies power to an electric motor.Both th e engine and the engine motor can turn the transmission at the same time and the transmission then turns the wheels. Figure 3 shows a typical collimate hybrid. The fuel tank and gas engine connect to the transmission. The batteries and electric motor also connect to the transmission independently. As a contribute, in a repeat hybrid, both the electric motor and the gas engine can provide propulsion power. The Series crossbred Car The gasoline engine in this car turns a generator and the generator can any wake up the batteries or power an electric motor that wads the transmission.Thus the gasoline engine never right away powers the vehicle. All of the components form a line that in the end connects with the transmission. 4 crossing Components petrol engine The hybrid car has a gasoline engine much ilk the one you will find on near cars. However, the engine on a hybrid is little and uses travel technologies to go down emissions and increase efficiency. The engine tur ns the generator. It is non able to power the car directly. dis complaint tank The fuel tank in a hybrid is the get-up-and-go storage device for the gasoline engine. Gasoline has a much higher energy meanness than batteries do.For ideal, it takes about 1,000 pounds of batteries to store as much energy as 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gasoline. Electric motor The electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can tend energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car bulge out and return energy to the batteries. Generator The generator is analogous to an electric motor, but it acts except to produce electrical power. It is used mostly on series hybrids.It is where the gas engines power gets converted to electrical power to drive the motor or charge the batteries. Batteries The batteries in a hybrid car be the energy st orage device for the electric motor. conflicting the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can all power the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can posture energy into the batteries as well as back off energy from them. They can store energy retrieve from braking or generated by the motor.Transmission The transmission on a hybrid car performs the same staple function as the transmission on a stuffy car i.e. turns the wheels. The motor can spin fast enough so that the transmission needs only one gear. Some hybrids, the exchangeables of the Honda Insight, have conventional transmissions. Others, like the Toyota Prius, have radically unalike ones like the CVT. CVT stands for Continuously Variable Transmission. It is used to take leave the transmission ratio in vehicles continuously.The way CVT whole works depends on the type Friction CVTs transfer the r of the contact point between two rotating objects, thusly the tangential velocity Hydrostatic CVTs vary the placid flow with variable displacement pumps into hydrostatic motors Ratcheting CVTs vary the stroke of a reciprocating motion, which is connected to a free-wheel, resulting unifacial rotation. Image courtesy DaimlerChrysler The Mercedes-Benz M-Class HYPER a hybrid conceit vehicle5Reasons For The Introduction Of Hybrid Electric Vehicles To reduce tailpipe emissions Gasoline cars ar a major source of these emissions. umteen attempts be being made by several organizations to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from cars through the development of hybrid electric vehicles.For example, Nutley, NJ-based Hoffman-La Roche, Inc. (Roche), the U. S. prescription drug social unit of the Roche Group, recently announced plans to integrate Toyota Prius and Ford trip out hybrid electric vehicles into its pharmaceutical sales exceed in an effort to help achieve the partnerships goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 10 percent oer the future(a) five years. 6 To improve mileage Au tomakers in the US need to meet Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards as required by law. At present, all new cars sold should be 27. 5mpg (8. 55 liters per 100km). 7To overcome the shortcomings of an electric car Electric cars have a short charge. They lacked the range (energy density of electric-vehicle batteries hovered nigh 70 to 100 watt-hours per kilogram, which automotive engineers called unacceptable) and the quick reload time the auto industry said it needed. An example is seen in the case where GM introduced the EV1 in 1996. It had a top speed of 183 MPH, faster than any other(a) production car out. It had a limiter that would non let it get above 85 MPH, because to drive the car at 183 MPH would deplete the batteries of their charge within 10 minutes.8 Energy Consumption Hybrid Electric Vehicles consume little energy than Internal-Combustion railway locomotive (ICE) vehicles. 9 Why Are Hybrid Electric Vehicles A Better Choice? An important aspect of hybrid e lectric vehicles is that they make use of littler engines. There are many advantages to this Big engines are heavier than littler ones so the car uses more energy anytime it accelerates or drives up a hill. The displacement of the cylinders is larger so apiece cylinder requires a greater brashness of fuel.Bigger engines usually have more cylinders, and each cylinder uses fuel every time the engine fires, even if the car isnt moving. These are the reasons in that location is a difference in the mileage of two cars of the same model with different engines. If both cars are drive along the freeway at the same speed, the one with the smaller engine uses less energy. Both engines have to output the same amount of power to drive the car, but the small engine uses less power to drive itself. In a hybrid car, the gasoline engine can be much smaller than the one in a conventional car and thus can be more efficient.The engine in the hybrid car is aright enough to move the car along on th e freeway, but when it needs to get the car moving in a hurry, or go up a steep hill, it needs help. That help comes from the electric motor and battery this system steps in to provide the necessary extra power. The gas engine on a conventional car is size for the peak power requirement (those few generation when you floor the accelerator pedal). In fact, most drivers use the peak power of their engines less than one percent of the time.The hybrid car uses a much smaller engine, one that is sized closer to the average power requirement than to the peak power. Ways Hybrid Electric Vehicles Reduce Energy Consumption Besides a smaller, more efficient engine, todays hybrids use many other tricks to increase fuel efficiency. Some of those tricks will help any type of car get better mileage, and some only withstand to a hybrid. To squeeze every last mile out of a gallon of gasoline, a hybrid car can Recover energy and store it in the battery Whenever you step on the halt pedal in you r car, you are removing energy from the car. The faster a car is going, the more kinetic energy it has.The halt of a car remove this energy and dissipate it in the form of heat. A hybrid car can capture some of this energy and store it in the battery to use later. It does this by using regenerative braking. That is, instead of just using the brakes to stop the car, the electric motor that drives the hybrid can also slow the car. In this mode, the electric motor acts as a generator and charges the batteries while the car is slowing down. Sometimes shut off the engine A hybrid car does not need to rely on the gasoline engine all of the time because it has an alternate power source the electric motor and batteries.So the hybrid car can sometimes turn off the gasoline engine, for example when the vehicle is stopped at a red light. Figure 5. The frontal empyrean profile of a small and large car Use advanced aerodynamics to reduce drag When you are driving on the freeway, most of t he work your engine does goes into pushing the car through the air. This force is known as aerodynamic drag. This drag force can be reduced in a variety of ways. One sure way is to reduce the frontal area of the car (Figure 5). Think of how a big SUV has to push a much greater area through the air than a tiny sports car.Reducing disturbances nearly objects that stick out from the car or eliminating them entirely can also help to improve the aerodynamics. For example, covers over the wheel housings fluid the airflow and reduce drag. And sometimes, mirrors are replaced with small cameras. Use low-rolling resistance tires The tires on most cars are optimized to give a smooth ride, minimize noise, and provide good traction in a variety of weather conditions. But they are rarely optimized for efficiency. In fact, the tires cause a affect amount of drag while you are driving.Hybrid cars use special tires that are both stiffer and high-flown to a higher pressure than conventional tire s. The result is that they cause about half the drag of level(p) tires. Use light lean materials Reducing the overall weight of a car is one easy way to increase the mileage. A lighter vehicle uses less energy each time you accelerate or drive up a hill. Composite materials like carbon fiber or lightweight metals like aluminum and magnesium can be used to reduce weight. 10 Despite the advantages of hybrid vehicles, they are a middling choice whose future is far from assured.They are likely to be a victim of restrictive circumstance in the near term, pushed aside by improvements in gasoline emissions and by the Zero spark Vehicles (ZEV) mandate which states that a specified percentage of manufacturers sales consist of ZEVs. 11 In the longer term, they will be squeezed between improving batteries and emerging fuel cells. If only fuel cells and advanced batteries falter, hybrid vehicles would have large promise and could play a central role in creating a more sustainable theodolit e system.Nissan Motor Company CEO Carlos Ghosn announced that he is unsure whether hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) will go along competitive in the compact car market if the price of gasoline drops in the future. Speaking at a news conference in Tokyo, Ghosn admit that Nissan will unveil a new HEV in 2006 as planned, but only to meet alter emission regulations in California. Ghosn expressed doubt that U. S. benchmark crude prices would remain at current levels of $50 per barrel, which is fueling strong demand for HEVs.Reuters said Nissan instead plans to market its new fuel-efficient, gasoline-powered Tiida compact car to environmentally conscious drivers. 12 Disadvantages Of Hybrid Electric Vehicles By combining two propulsion systems and their associated energy storage units, they are inherently more complex than both sensitive battery-powered electric and pure internal-combustion vehicles.Comments 1 Daniel Sperling Future poke Electric Vehicles and sustainable Transportatio n, pg 101 2 http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car1. htm 3 http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car1. htm 4 http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car2. htm 5 http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car3. htm 6http//web1. infotrac. galegroup. com/itw/infomark/155/298/52759225w1/ twiddle=rc1_ITOF_0_A122672547&dyn=5 xrn_15_0_A122672547?sw_aep=swar94187, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Today, Sept 30, 2004 p0 , oblige A122672547 7.http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car4. htm 8 http//www. morphizm. com/observations/borah/borah_corner1. html 9 Daniel Sperling Future Drive Electric Vehicles and sustainable Transportation, pg 100 10 http//auto. howstuffworks. com/hybrid-car8. htm 11 Daniel Sperling Future Drive Electric Vehicles and Sustainable Transportation, pg 2 12 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Today, Oct. 7, 2004, p0 Article A122947647.